Overview

This period saw dramatic economic expansion, cultural change, and European imperialism. Industrialization deepened global integration, population growth reshaped societies, and scientific and artistic movements transformed European thought. At the same time, imperialism spread European power into Africa and Asia, sparking both admiration and resistance.

Key Themes and Developments

• Demography and Social Change:
  • Rapid population growth due to improved public health and agricultural productivity.
  • Urbanization accelerated; city planning and sanitation became vital public concerns.
• World Economy:
  • Second Industrial Revolution (steel, chemicals, electricity, petroleum) revolutionized production and transportation.
  • Global markets expanded, and European capital flowed into colonies.
• Science and Intellectual Life:
  • Darwin: Theory of evolution challenged religious and social beliefs.
  • Freud: Introduced the unconscious mind and psychoanalysis.
  • Positivism emphasized science and observation over metaphysics.
• Cultural Movements:
  • Realism: Depicted everyday life without romantic idealization (e.g., Flaubert, Dickens).
  • Impressionism and Modernism: Broke from traditional forms to capture personal experience and perception (e.g., Monet, Picasso).
• Imperialism in Africa and Asia:
  • "New Imperialism" driven by economic interests, nationalism, and civilizing missions.
  • Berlin Conference (1884–85) divided Africa among European powers with little regard for local cultures.
  • Resistance emerged in various forms: military (e.g., Mahdist Sudan) and intellectual (e.g., Indian nationalism).

Quick Tip

This era was about dominance—technological, cultural, and imperial. Understand how industrial power, global ambition, and new ideas shaped both European societies and the people they colonized.