Overview

This period was defined by national unification, imperial rivalry, and shifting diplomatic alliances. The nation-state became the dominant political form in Europe as leaders pursued aggressive policies of unity, reform, and expansion that ultimately led to instability on a continental scale.

Key Themes and Developments

• Unification of Italy:
  • Cavour: Used diplomacy and alliances (with France) to unify northern Italy under Piedmont-Sardinia.
  • Garibaldi: Led the Red Shirts in southern Italy; yielded power to King Victor Emmanuel II in 1861.
  • Rome joined Italy in 1870 after French withdrawal.
• Unification of Germany:
  • Otto von Bismarck: Master of realpolitik; used war and diplomacy to unify Germany under Prussian leadership.
  • Wars with Denmark, Austria (Seven Weeks’ War), and France (Franco-Prussian War) were key steps.
  • Proclamation of the German Empire in 1871 at Versailles.
• Austria-Hungary and Russia:
  • Austria became dual monarchy in 1867 to placate Hungarians but struggled with other nationalities.
  • Russia pursued modernization (railroads, emancipation of serfs) under Alexander II but remained autocratic.
• France:
  • Third Republic established after 1870 defeat; struggled with political instability but modernized economy and military.
  • Dreyfus Affair revealed tensions between republicans, conservatives, and anti-Semitic elements.
• Socialism and Labor:
  • Growth of socialist parties (SPD in Germany) and international workers’ movements.
  • Labor unions and strikes pressured governments for reforms in hours, wages, and safety.
• European Diplomacy:
  • Bismarck’s alliance system (Three Emperors’ League, Dual Alliance, Triple Alliance) aimed to isolate France and preserve peace.
  • After Bismarck, diplomacy weakened as Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued more aggressive policies, leading to rising tensions by 1914.

Quick Tip

The age of nationalism was about building and defending the modern state. Know how leaders used war, reform, and diplomacy to unify their nations—and how fragile alliances and power shifts set the stage for global conflict.