Overview

The period from 1560 to 1648 was one of profound religious, political, and economic transformation in Europe. It witnessed the consolidation of state power, deepening confessional divides, growing global connections, and the emergence of modern economic practices. This era culminated in devastating wars and a fragile peace that reshaped Europe’s political map.

Key Themes and Developments

• The Opening of the Atlantic:
  • European exploration led by Spain and Portugal expanded trade and colonization into the Americas and Africa.
  • New global routes fostered cultural exchange, slavery, and wealth accumulation in Western Europe.
• The Commercial Revolution:
  • Rise of joint-stock companies, banking institutions, and a capitalist spirit.
  • Shift from feudal to market economies; increased urbanization and specialization.
  • Mercantilism: Economic doctrine emphasizing national wealth, bullion, and government intervention.
• Religious and Dynastic Conflicts:
  • French Wars of Religion: Catholics vs. Huguenots; Edict of Nantes (1598) granted limited toleration.
  • Spanish Armada (1588): Failed attempt to invade Protestant England under Elizabeth I.
  • Thirty Years' War (1618–1648): A pan-European struggle that devastated Germany; ended by the Peace of Westphalia.
  • Rise of absolutism and state sovereignty.
• Thought and Culture:
  • Scientific thinkers like Galileo and Kepler challenged medieval cosmology and church authority.
  • Baroque art and architecture expressed power, faith, and emotion through grandeur and detail.
  • Continued influence of Renaissance humanism in education and literature.

Quick Tip

This era laid the groundwork for modern Europe. Understand how overseas expansion, economic shifts, and religious wars accelerated state formation, challenged old authorities, and set the stage for Enlightenment and revolution.