Overview

The post–Civil War period brought dramatic changes in American cultural and intellectual life. Reformers, writers, and scientists responded to urbanization and industrialization with new ideas about education, art, race, class, and society. Culture reflected both the optimism and anxiety of a rapidly changing nation.

Key Themes and Events

• Realism and Naturalism in Literature: Authors like Mark Twain, Henry James, and Edith Wharton captured the complexity of American life with an emphasis on social class, industrialization, and regional identity.
• Philosophical Shifts: Pragmatism emerged as a distinctly American philosophy, shaped by thinkers like William James and John Dewey. It emphasized the practical consequences of ideas.
• Education Reform: Public schooling expanded, especially in the North. Progressive education emphasized problem-solving, citizenship, and personal growth.
• Scientific Advancement: Advances in medicine, engineering, and biology transformed public health and daily life. Darwin’s theories influenced debates in religion, science, and education.
• Architecture and Arts: American artists like Thomas Eakins and architects like Louis Sullivan blended innovation with national pride. The City Beautiful movement sought to improve urban life through design.
• Race, Gender, and Intellectual Thought: Reformers like W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington debated strategies for Black advancement. Women's clubs and magazines helped expand access to intellectual life and social reform.

Quick Tip

Be ready to connect cultural changes to industrialization and reform. Know major authors, thinkers, and movements. CLEP may ask about literary realism, pragmatism, and education trends in the Gilded Age.