Overview

The period from 1790 to 1877 saw the solidification of American political institutions, the growth of democratic participation, and intense debates over federalism, slavery, and the role of government. From the ratification of the Constitution to Reconstruction, U.S. political life was shaped by expanding suffrage, party formation, and constitutional crisis.

Key Themes and Events

• Constitution in Practice: The federal government became fully operational under the Constitution. George Washington set important precedents, including a two-term presidency and the establishment of the Cabinet.
• Development of Political Parties: Conflicts between Federalists (Hamilton) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) led to the emergence of the first party system. Later, Jacksonian Democrats and Whigs defined the second party system.
• Jacksonian Democracy: Andrew Jackson promoted expanded white male suffrage, spoils system politics, and a strong presidency. He also opposed the Bank of the United States and federal funding of internal improvements.
• Constitutional Crises: Key debates included the Nullification Crisis (1832), the Dred Scott decision (1857), and secession. These revealed sectional tensions over states’ rights and slavery.
• Reconstruction and the Postwar Amendments: The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments abolished slavery, defined citizenship, and protected voting rights. Radical Republicans attempted to reshape Southern government, often facing violent opposition.
• Federal vs. State Power: The Civil War tested the limits of federal authority. After the war, Reconstruction policies reinforced the supremacy of the federal government but also sparked resistance in the South.

Quick Tip

Know the evolution of party systems, especially Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans and Jacksonian Democrats vs. Whigs. Be ready to explain how the Civil War and Reconstruction changed the relationship between states and the federal government.